Social science should have some basic features which are defined by the academic writing style used to write the social science papers. A part from the style used, the papers should also have the following features in their writing. Firstly, social science papers should present a general introduction that outlines the context of the social science paper. This should contain a thesis statement towards its end. This statement acts as the basis of the argument and any other ideas or propositions that may be made within the social science papers. The statement should be supported from within the body of the essay. The second feature of social science papers is the body. This part presents the argument in a clear and succinct manner whilst using the presented evidence to support the earlier stated statement. This supportive information may be presented in various forms including the use of figures, theories and facts. Therefore, evidence is a crucial feature in supporting the content of any social science papers. The supportive information presented should be clearly in support of the thesis, and the writer of the social science papers should strive to show how the presented material does support the thesis. Thus the manner in which the supportive information is presented should be orderly and easy to understand.

Citations are another common feature in the writing of social science papers. These are used to present evidence in forms of paraphrased or directly quoted secondary sources. Citations are important because they help the reader to follow through your information sources as well as to structure your argument in their own context. Citations should be done in accordance to the stipulated academic writing styles chosen by the assigning tutor or lecturer. The bibliography is also a common feature in the writing of social science papers. The writing of a bibliography for any social science papers should follow the stipulations of the academic writing style used within the document for citations. Prior to writing the bibliography the writer of the social science papers should also include a conclusion section.

A feature that is important in social science papers because it sums up the argument within the social science papers. In the conclusion section of the social science papers the writer re-states the thesis and argument presented within the social science papers. Thereafter, the writer should state the significance and implication of the findings or facts presented within his or her argument. This explanation may also involve how the information presented may be applied in real life situations of day-to-day life. In order to have a clear flow of information students are advised to follow this outline for consistency and clarity enhancement.

But the excessive scientific probity of his output has ended by alienating him from the cultured public. Except for quite rare exceptions, the historians of religions are not read outside the restricted circles of their colleagues and disciples. The public no longer reads their books, either because they are too technical or too dull; in short because they awaken no spiritual interest. By force of hearing it repeated–as it was, for instance, by Sir James Frazer throughout some twenty thousand pages–that everything thought, imagined or desired by man in archaic societies, all his myths and rites, all his gods and religious experiences, are nothing but a monstrous accumulation of madnesses, cruelties and superstitions now happily abolished by the progress of mankind–by dint of listening almost always to the same thing, the public has at last let itself be convinced, and has ceased to take any interest in the objective study of religions. A portion, at least, of this public tries to satisfy its legitimate curiosity by reading very bad books–on the mysteries of the Pyramids, the miracles of Yoga, on the “primordial revelations”, or Atlantis–in short, interests itself in the frightful literature of the dilettanti, the neospiritualists or pseudo-occultists.

To some degree, it is we, the historians of religions, who are responsible for this. We wanted at all costs to present an objective history of religions, but we failed to bear in mind that what we were christening objectivity followed the fashion of thinking in our times. For nearly a century we have been striving to set up the history of religions as an autonomous discipline, without success: the history of religions is still, as we all know, confused with anthropology, ethnology, sociology, religious psychology and even with orientalism. Desirous to achieve by all means the prestige of a “science”, the history of religions has passed through all the crises of the modern scientific mind, one after another. Historians of religions have been successively–and some of them have not ceased to be–positivists, empiricists, rationalists or historicists. And what is more, none of the fashions which in succession have dominated this study of ours, not one of the global systems put forward in explanation of the religious phenomenon, has been the work of a historian of religions; they have all derived from hypotheses advanced by eminent linguists, anthropologists, sociologists or ethnologists, and have been accepted in their turn by everyone, including the historians of religions!

The situation that one finds today is as follows: a considerable improvement in information, paid for by excessive specialisation and even by sacrificing our own vocation (for the majority of historians of religions have become orientalists, classicists, ethnologists, etc.), and a dependence upon the methods elaborated by modern historiography or sociology (as though the historical study of a ritual or a myth were exactly the same thing as that of a country or of some primitive people). In short, we have neglected this essential fact: that in the title of the “history of religions” the accent ought not to be upon the word history, but upon the word religions. For although there are numerous ways of practising history–from the history of technics to that of human thought–there is only one way of approaching religion–namely, to deal with the religious facts. Before making the history of anything, one must have a proper understanding of what it is, in and for itself. In that connection, I would draw attention to the work of Professor Van der Leeuw, who has done so much for the phenomenology of religion, and whose many and brilliant publications have aroused the educated public to a renewal of interest in the history of religions in general.

Click here to read the complete version of Images and Symbols and get more sources on this subject at Questia.com.

In an indirect way, the same interest has been awakened by the discoveries of psychoanalysis and depth-psychology, in the first place by the work of Professor Jung. Indeed, it was soon recognised that the enormous domain of the history of religions provided an inexhaustible supply of terms of comparison with the behaviour of the individual or the collective psyche, as this was studied by psychologists or analysts. As we all know, the use that psychologists have made of such socio-religious documentation has not always obtained the approval of historians of religions. We shall be examining, in a moment, the objections raised against such comparisons, and indeed they have often been too daring. But it may be said at once that if the historians of religions had only approached the objects of their study from a more spiritual standpoint, if they had tried to gain a deeper insight into archaic religious symbolisms, many psychological or psychoanalytic interpretations, which look all too flimsy to a specialist’s eye, would never have been suggested. The psychologists have found excellent materials in our books, but very few explanations of any depth–and they have been tempted to fill up these lacunae by taking over the work of the historians of religions by putting forward general–and too often rash–hypotheses.

In few words, the difficulties that have to be overcome today are these: (a) on the one hand, having decided to compete for the prestige of an objective “scientific” historiography, the history of religions is obliged to face the objections that can be raised against historicism as such; and (b) on the other hand, it is also obliged to take up the challenge lately presented to it by psychology in general–and particularly by depth-psychology, which, now that it is beginning to work directly upon the historicoreligious data, is putting forward working hypotheses more promising, more productive, or at any rate more sensational, than those that are current among historians of religion.

To understand these difficulties better, let us come now to the subject of the present study: the symbolism of the “Centre”. A historian of religions has the right to ask us: What do you mean by these terms? What symbols are in question? Among which peoples and in what cultures? And he might add: You are not unaware that the epoch of Tylor, of Mannhardt and Frazer is over and done with; it is no longer allowable today to speak of myths and rites “in general”, or of a uniformity in primitive man’s reactions to Nature. Those generalisations are abstractions, like those of “primitive man” in general. What is concrete is the religious phenomenon manifested in history and through history. And, from the simple fact that it is manifested in history, it is limited, it is conditioned by history. What meaning, then, for the history of religions could there be in such a formula as, for instance, the ritual approach to immortality? We must first specify what kind of immortality is in question; for we cannot be sure, a priori, that humanity as a whole has had, spontaneously, the intuition of immortality or even the desire for it. You speak of the “symbolism of the Centre”–what right have you, as a historian of religions, to do so? Can one so lightly generalise? One ought rather to begin by asking oneself: in which culture, and following upon what historical events, did the religious notion of the “Centre”, or that of immortality become crystallised? How are these notions integrated and justified, in the organic system of such and such a culture? How are they distributed, and among which peoples? Only after having answered all these preliminary questions will one have the right to generalise and systematise, to speak in general about the rites of immortality or symbols of the “Centre”. If not, one may be contributing to psychology or philosophy, or even theology, but not to the history of religions.

I think all these objections are justified and, inasmuch as I am a historian of religions, I intend to take them into account. But I do not regard them as insurmountable. I know well enough that we are dealing here with religious phenomena and that, by the very fact that they are phenomena–that is, manifested or revealed to us–each one is struck, like a medal, by the historical moment in which it was born. There is no “purely” religious fact, outside history and outside time. The noblest religious message, the most universal of mystical experiences, the most universally human behaviour–such, for instance, as religious fear, or ritual, or prayer–is singularised and delimited as soon as it manifests itself. When the Son of God incarnated and became the Christ, he had to speak Aramaic; he could only conduct himself as a Hebrew of his times–and not as a yogi, a Taoist or a shaman. His religious message, however universal it might be, was conditioned by the past and present history of the Hebrew people. If the Son of God had been born in India, his spoken message would have had to conform itself to the structure of the Indian languages, and to the historic and prehistoric tradition of that mixture of peoples.

In the taking up of this position one can clearly recognise the speculative progress that has been made, from Kant–who may be regarded as a precursor of historicism–down to the latest historicist or existentialist philosophers. In so far as man is a historic, concrete, authentic being, he is “in situation”. His authentic existence is realising itself in history, in time, in his time –which is not that of his father. Neither is it the time of his contemporaries in another continent, or even in another country. That being so, what business have we to be talking about the behaviour of man in general? This man in general is no more than an abstraction: he exists only on the strength of a misunderstanding due to the imperfection of language.

This is not the place to attempt a philosophical critique of historicism and historicist existentialism. That critique has been made, and by more competent authors. Let us remark, for the present, that the view of human spiritual life as historically conditioned resumes, upon another plane and using other dialectical methods, the now somewhat outmoded theories of environmental determinism, geographical, economic, social and even physiological. Everyone agrees that a spiritual fact, being a human fact, is necessarily conditioned by everything that works together to make a man, from his anatomy and physiology to language itself. In other words, a spiritual fact presupposes the whole human being –that is, the social man, the economic man, and so forth. But all these conditioning factors together do not, of themselves, add up to the life of the spirit.

What distinguishes the historian of religions from the historian as such is that he is dealing with facts which, although historical, reveal a behaviour that goes far beyond the historical involvements of the human being. Although it is true that man is always found “in situation”, his situation is not, for all that, always a historical one in the sense of being conditioned solely by the contemporaneous historical moment. The man in his totality is aware of other situations over and above his historical condition; for example, he knows the state of dreaming, or of the waking dream, or of melancholy, or of detachment, or of œsthetic bliss, or of escape, etc.–and none of these states is historical, although they are as authentic and as important for human existence as man’s historical existence is. Man is also aware of several temporal rhythms, and not only of historical time–his own time, his historical contemporancity. He has only to listen to good music, to fall in love, or to pray, and he is out of the historical present, he re-enters the eternal present of love and of religion. Even to open a novel, or attend a dramatic performance, may be enough to transport a man into another rhythm of time–what one might call “condensed time”–which is anyhow not historical time. It has been too lightly assumed that the authenticity of an existence depends solely upon the consciousness of its own historicity. Such historic awareness plays a relatively minor part in human consciousness, to say nothing of the zones of the unconscious which also belong to the make-up of the whole human being. The more a consciousness is awakened, the more it transcends its own historicity: we have only to remind ourselves of the mystics and sages of all times, and primarily those of the Orient.

Hard working is also another quality that Anthony or Tony Amaradiopossesses. Ever since he was just a child, Anthony already set his goals into becoming a successful professional someday. This pushed him to work really hard in order to achieve his objectives in life. Aside from this, Anthony also worked in the finance service industry prior to becoming a CEO of his own company. During his work in this particular occupation, he was able to create finance strategic plans that are very useful especially for big companies. This made him even more famous in the business world. In addition to this, Anthony also became a member of several business groups and companies. Some of these groups include the FINRA and the SICP. Aside from this, Anthony also became the Registered Representative of the SEG or the Securities Equity Group.

Our race does not completely make up who we are. It has some influence as we may follow some of our cultural traditions. How we are raised, who we learn from and who we spend much of our time with is what mainly helps to make up who we are. For example, if you hang around with friends that get into trouble frequently, down the road do you think you will get into trouble? Probably. We all know the saying “guilty by association.” Even if you are not a troublemaker, but you spend a lot of time with troublemakers, you will soon see your reputation as a person start to change in other people’s eyes. We usually share the same beliefs and values with the people we become friends with. If we hang around racist people, most likely we will hear it enough and find ourselves thinking and saying some of the same things.

People need to keep an open mind and only judge people for their personalities and deeds they have done, do not throw race into the mix.

There are so many ethnic groups in one area. For instance, did you know that the Philippines has many ethnic groups? Besides having different ethnic groups, the Philippines has a sub-list of groups. You will find the Visayan ethnic group to the  Ilocano ethnic group to the Tagalog ethnic group, etc.

In the United States of America which is named “the melting pot” you will find Hispanic ethnic groups, Black ethnic groups, Caucasians ethnic groups, etc.

Each ethnic group brings something to the table so to speak. We can all learn something from each other. Instead of jumping to conclusions and prejudices, we should embrace our differences. We should try to understand and learn about each other’s cultures. Think of all of the fascinating things we could learn. We may even adopt some of each ethnic group’s culture traditions.

If your neighbor is of another ethnic group or someone you work with or go to school with, sit down and get to know him or her. Really listen. You may find that you enjoy getting to know other folk’s culture. You may also find that you have made a new really good friend.

For more information on ethnic groups, please visit http://www.usariseup.com.

China’s solar energy industry has never experienced the same as today to rectify the image of the industry Haohao Di, since solar energy to rural areas to be classified

Appliances to the countryside

Since winning 92 major companies have begun to villages under the ground, “started taking” No matter what, today’s solar industry is experiencing the pains of shuffling.

Voice within the industry, solar industry is going

Home Appliances

Industry has gone through the road, early in the household appliance industry, the country full production

TV

Machine manufacturers, and now TV manufacturers producing less than 20 solar energy industry, the brand will also continue to increase in concentration. Of course, there hold negative views of the sound, according to incomplete statistics, there are more than 6,000 large and small solar brand, but can really advertised brand enterprises are up to no more than 20, a large number of miscellaneous troops flooding the market, in Solar industry growth of 20 years, no-name military license to occupy the market by low-cost, difficult road to the solar industry shuffling heavy. “Miscellaneous troops,” the majority is the number of outstanding solar household electrical appliance enterprises and minority business status of the domestic solar industry, a general.

Successful as this one of solar energy to rural areas, Changzhou City, Sun Bao

Water heater

Tian Hong, general manager of growth that the solar companies should “miscellaneous troops,” said NO! Brand solar energy industry to be effectively enhance the concentration must have “Lucky Sambo”:

A treasures: precious sense?? Do not “winning the countryside” too seriously

Twists and turns solar energy to rural areas and eventually be incorporated into the appliances to the countryside, since then, solar energy is almost into the crazy state of the countryside, thousands of businesses large and small, only 92 won the bid, beating the drums most successful solar companies, “I bid a I bid a “great” Fanjinzhongju “wind, solar and not successful enterprises are to continue their” rural guerrilla warfare, “the saying goes,” Dogs are dogs Road, cats have cat road. ”

Changzhou Tian Hong, general manager of solar water heaters by Bao believes that solar energy to rural areas is only a matter of policy, and one bid for one year, we need not be so “crazy”, to be rational view of the “winning the countryside”, must not order “under the Township “and” rural areas “over the the” bid to the countryside “as a sign unconsciously ignore” Solar countryside “to really be concerned about the topic: quality of products and

Service

. People really concerned about is the product of cost and service, successful solar companies in product quality and service should be up and down real skills for those who rely on low quality cheap survival “miscellaneous troops,” no place to seeing them, this is an excellent distinction between solar energy companies in the “miscellaneous troops,” one of the most powerful weapon.

2 Po: feng shui treasure?? On the pretext of home appliance channel lineup rural market

Appliance industry has been relatively mature, standardized, and this is Why solar energy to rural areas into the areas of home appliances to the countryside one of the reasons, no doubt, solar energy to rural areas should learn from the valuable experience of home appliances to the countryside; In addition, the appliance industry to the countryside process established in the township market, the relative sound

Sell

Channel solar energy to rural areas should also be clever with the “feng shui treasure land”, home appliances industry in three to four market construction is relatively standard distribution channels, service awareness are more in place, the process of solar energy to rural areas to go home appliance business channel is an indisputable fact, the key is to home appliances and reputable channels to establish healthy business relationship, so that “no-name Army” no place to ground, take root, thereby enhancing the image of the entire solar industry.

Sambo: Brand to treasure?? Brand strength is the channel operators are not “instigation” of the premise of the

General Manager of Hong Tian Bao
by Sun that solar energy industry concentration to effectively enhance and channel providers essential to normal operation, the previous business is difficult to standardize solar energy sources, difficult to manage, the majority of business is to follow the channel profits go, who products to push his return another job which the main product, but the fact is that many small workshop-style solar manufacturers to assemble, so as to cut into the market, so that these channels often sell the brand today, tomorrow, they sold the brand was “instigation” is common, brand loyalty is very low, which also contributed to the overall image of the solar energy industry is one reason poor.

The best use of solar energy manufacturers home appliances to the countryside should be a good policy to brand, Product and hold the center channel operators, channel operators to follow the brand truly influential business go on, which is solar industry to enhance the overall brand concentration must be going through a painful process, but this process it must be a healthy development process.

JG Wentworth is proud to have an A+ rating from the Better Business Bureau. BBB is the organization that rates a particular business according to the efficiency of services and is anchored on various criteria to come up with a fair rating. JGW is a company categorized under the financial services department specializing in purchasing structured settlements, lottery winnings, annuities, cash advances and other financial services. BBB gave JGW an A+ rating for having successfully met all accreditation standards. The evaluators were able to see the commitment and good faith of JGW in resolving complaints and handling operations with ease and efficiency. BBB ratings are presented to the public, which then gives JGW a good standing for having such rating. Their services have been evaluated and endorsed by BBB with the highest satisfactory rate and high quality in performance and competency amongst their services.

Better Business Bureau based the rating from seven elements and sixteen grading points. These grading points are business type, period of business, competency licensing, volume of complaint, unanswered complaints, unresolved complaints, serious complaints, complaint analysis, complaint resolution delayed, failure to address complaint pattern, government to action, advertising review, background information, clear understanding of issues, mediation or arbitration and revocation. JG Wentworth received an A+ for successfully answering all complaints with ease, the length of time in operation and BB had the needed background information regarding the business.

As a whole, Better Business Bureau as well as the positive JG Wentworth reviews it has been consistently receiving highly commends JG Wentworth for having an excellent rating which they highly deserve due to their undying professionalism, unyielding commitments to provide services with efficiency and for being loyal and honest to their clients. Hence, more people started going to JGW and trusted them with their selling of their structured settlement.

This proves that a BBB rating can highly influence the people and define the perception of the citizens regarding a particular business and whether they deserve to be trusted or not. JG Wentworth reviews has proven that the company deserve the current standing and reputation they have now as their dedication were never faltered even if you throw in all the positive or negative feedbacks. They will surely address it responsibly and make it to a point of compensating to their clients if it will be proven that they are on the other end of the line which has some discrepancy regarding an issue. A good standing, an untarnished reputation, and a consistent quality service; these three things makes up for the success that JGW is experiencing and sharing with their loyal clients now.

Since the liberation of Bangladesh , 247 convicted criminals have been hanged to death. Not less than 1500 criminals are now death convicts. More than 950 convicts including 28 women are in the condemned cell waiting for the day of last breathing. Others (more than 500 convicts) are in hiding. This article will attempt to state whether death penalty serves the end of justice. Firstly, let’s have a glimpse of the end of the administration of criminal justice.

End of Criminal Justice: The purpose of criminal justice is to punish the wrongdoer. He is punished by the state. The question arises what is the purpose of punishment or in other words, end of criminal justice. From very ancient times a number of theories have been given concerning the purpose of punishment. These theories are in brief stated below.

Deterrent Theory (Deterrent Punishment): According to this theory, the object of punishment is not only to prevent the wrongdoer from doing a wrong a second time but also to make him an example to other persons who have criminal tendencies. To quote Salmond : “Punishment is before all things deterrent and the chief end of the law of crime is to make the evil doer an example and a warning to all that are likeminded with him.”

Preventive Theory (Preventive Punishment): This theory attempts to prevent the wrongdoer from committing offences again. The offenders are disabled from repeating the offences by such punishment as imprisonment, death, exile etc. Prevention seems to be the chief and only universal purpose of punishment. The law threatens certain pains, if you do certain things, intending thereby to give you a new motive for not doing them.

Reformative Theory: The object of punishment should be to bring about the moral reforms of the offenders. Even if an offender commits a crime, he does not cease to be a human being. He may have committed a crime under circumstances which might never occur again. The advocates of the reformative theory contend that by a sympathetic, tactful and loving treatment of the offenders, by moral education and proper training, a revolutionary change may be brought about in their characters.

Retributive Theory: In primitive society, the person wronged was allowed to have his revenge against the wrongdoer. The principle of “an eye for an eye”, “a tooth for a tooth” was recognized and followed. Plato was supporter of this theory. He wrote: “Every culpa demands expiation; the culpa is ugly, it is contrary to justice and order; the expiation is beautiful because all that is just is beautiful and to suffer for justice is also beautiful.”

Comparative Study: the modern world tends to reform the offenders instead of punishing them. The reason is that modern Criminology and Penology treat the offenders as sick, subnormal human beings who may be transformed into good citizens by educative and reformative treatment to them by government.

It is contended that the deterrent theory has been proved ineffective in checking crimes. Provisions for severe punishment in Penal Code have failed to stop increasing crimes in the world. Excessive harshness of punishment tends to defeat its own purpose by arousing sympathy of the public towards those who are given cruel punishment. Deterrent punishment is likely to harden the criminal instead of creating in him the fear of law. Hardened criminals are not afraid of punishment. Punishment loses its horror once the criminal is punished. Retributive theory has also been criticized as barbaric and uncivilized form of punishment. Revenge is wild justice. It merely aggravates the mischief.

Preventive punishment may be effective in certain cases, for instance, cancellation of driving license, dismissal of service etc but inflicting severe pains in the name of prevention ultimately results in nothing other than hardening criminals. Again the application of reformative theory runs the risk of increasing crimes in the society. If criminals are to be sent to prison to be transformed into good citizens by physical, intellectual and moral training, prisons must be turned into comfortable dwelling places. There are many incorrigible offenders who are beyond the reach of reformative influences and with whom crime is not a bad habit but an instinct and they must be left in despair. It is true that criminals generally are not normal human beings. They are mentally diseased and abnormal human beings. However if all the offenders are treated leniently , even ordinary sane people may be tempted to commit crimes in view of the lenient attitude of law towards crimes.

The perfect system of criminal justice cannot, therefore, be based on any one theory of punishment. Every theory has its own merits and every effort must be made to take the good points of all. The deterrent aspect of punishment must not be ignored. Likewise the reformative aspect must be given its due place. The personality of the offender is as important as his actions and we must not divorce his actions from his personality. The offender is not merely a criminal to be punished. He is also a patient to be treated. Punishment must be given in proportion to the gravity of the crime. It must be small for minor crimes and heavy for major crimes. The first offender should be leniently treated. Special treatment should be given to the juvenile offenders. It must not be forgotten that motive for the crime is generally lacking in the case of children. They commit petty offences on account of bad company and bad neighbours. Their cases must be handled with imagination and sympathy. While awarding punishment, the judge should study the character and age of the offender, his early breeding, his education and environment, the circumstances under which he committed the offence, the object with which he committed the offence and other factors.

In United Kingdom the offence of pick pocketing was awardable with death sentence but the pickpockets were seen busy with their activities in the crowd of people who gathered to see the execution of death sentence. So a section of lawmakers, jurists and lawyers raised their voice against death sentence and argued that death penalty did not serve the end of justice. Moreover this form of punishment is barbaric, savage and immoral institution which undermines the spirit that human beings may be reformed.

The proposals for abolition of death sentence for petty offences was brought about but there was a lot of hue and cry from lawyers , judges and parliamentarians and the so called protectors of social order. Six times the House of Commons passed the bill and six times the House of Lords rejected the same. With the passage of time, the voice for abolition of death penalty grew stronger over the world especially in Britain. However, in spite of opposition, the bill was passed and the number of cases in which capital punishment was awarded was reduced year after year and death penalty was reserved for offences like murder and treason.

Currently, in the world 133 countries have abolished capital punishment dejure or defacto. 64 countries have retained it. Bangladesh is one of them.(source: Amnesty International Website)

In UK , death penalty was abolished in 1965 except for offences of treason and certain forms of piracy and offences committed by members of the Armed Forces during wartime.

In India , the recent trend is clearly towards the abolition of death sentence. Before the amendment of Criminal Procedure Code in 1955, it was obligatory for a court to give reasons for not awarding death sentence in case of murder. Under the Criminal Procedure Code, 1973, the court has to record reasons for awarding death sentence.

A compassionate alternative of life imprisonment is gaining judicial ground in India . In a leading case of Bachan Sing v.State of Punjab(1980) 2 SCC 684,the Supreme Court held by a majority of four to one that the provisions of death sentence as an alternative punishment for murder in section 302 of Penal Code was not unreasonable and was in the public interest. The dissenting view of Justice Bhagwati was that instead of death sentence, the sentence of life imprisonment should be imposed. He put emphasis on barbarity and cruelty involved in death sentence. It is irrevocable and cannot be recalled. It extinguishes the flame of life for ever. It is destructive of the right to life which is the most precious right of all, a right without which enjoyment of no other right is possible. Justice Bhagwati rejects the view that death penalty acts as a deterrent against potential murderers. According to him, this view is a myth which has been carefully nurtured by a society which is actuated not so much by logic or reason as by a sense of retribution.

In 1983, the Indian Supreme Court in a ruling directed to impose death penalty only in rare cases. In India , death sentence was for the last time effectuated in 2004, hanging Dhananjoy to death for the offence of rape and murder of a schoolgirl belonging to minority group.

The US Supreme Court permitted death sentence in 1976. Despite this permission, 13 states including District of Colombia have ever sentenced none to death. Recently New Jersey as the first state of America has passed law abolishing death penalty. The human rights activists have warmly welcomed it terming the step as a milestone in the history of American criminal justice.

The United Nations Organization has been working worldwide for the abolition of death penalty. On November 15, 2007 , a resolution was passed in UN General Assembly regarding abolition of death penalty.99 member countries voted for and 52 countries including United States of America against the resolution. The rest 33 countries absented themselves from voting. Notably the resolution is not binding upon the countries. But this shows that the international communities want abolition of capital punishment.

In 1977, a world conference on capital punishment was held in the capital of Sweden . Since then the voice against such a cruel punishment grew stronger worldwide. The various organizations are working over the world against death sentence. The major organizations are Amnesty International, European Union. In 2002, World Coalition against the Death Penalty (WCADP) was formed under the patronization of EU in Rome of Italy. This coalition has been observing 10 October as the day against death penalty since 2003.

Death Penalty in Bangladesh : The legislative authority of Bangladesh has with a view to checking crimes provided a set of statutes which have empowered the courts to impose death penalty for various offences. Penal Code, 1860 has incorporated seven offences for which death sentence may be given. These are: 1.waging war against Bangladesh ( s.121), 2. abetting mutiny actually committed (s.132), 3. giving or fabricating false evidence upon which an innocent person suffers death (s.194), 4. murder (s.302), 5.abetment of suicide of child or insane person (s.305), 6. attempt to murder by life-convicts (s.307) and 7.dacoity with murder (s.396).

The Special Powers Act,1974 has provided death penalty for the offences of sabotage (s.15), counterfeiting currency notes and Government stamps (s.25A), smuggling (s.25B), and adulteration of ,or sale adulterated food, drink drugs or cosmetics (s.25C).

Nari o’ Shishu Nirjaton Daman Ain 2000 has incorporated death as punishment for the offences committed by combustible and likely other substances (s.4), for women trafficking etc (s.5), for children trafficking (s.6),for ransom (s.7),for ravishing any woman or child who dies consequently [s.9(2)],causing death for dowry (s.11),maiming or mutilation of children for begging.(s.12).

The courts and tribunals of Bangladesh are frequently imposing death penalty under various enactments. During the rule of four-party alliance a good number of criminals were sentenced to death, especially after the constitution of Monitoring Cell. During the last seven years almost 30 death sentences were executed. Now the question arises: has the death penalty reduced the incidents of crimes? Has it been able to prevent the offences or to act as a deterrent? In our republic a number of persons depend for maintenance upon the income of a single adult person. What happens to these dependants when the state takes away the life of that person for offences committed by him in the heat of passion and on the spur of moment? Is it not injustice to them without taking any step for their maintenance, care and good environment which are essential for their mental and physical growth as good citizens of the republic? The state cannot deprive any child of its father’s love and affection. The state can not do injustice in the name of checking crimes.

Conclusion

It has been pledged in the preamble of the republic’s constitution that equality and justice will be secured for all citizens. The liberation heroes had dedicated their lives with a view to establishing a welfare state in which fundamental human rights and freedoms and respect for the dignity and worth of the human person shall be guaranteed. Protection against cruel, inhuman, or degrading punishment is a fundamental right under art.35 (4) of the constitution. So time has come to reconsider death sentence as a means of punishment. The world’s trend is precisely towards the correction of the offenders in lieu of inflicting cruel, inhuman and degrading punishment. Bangladesh as a democratic country cannot lag behind.

The state is undergoing cumulative increase of crimes owing to a great deal of factors such as lack of good governance, absence of rule of law, corruption, patronisation of terrorists, wide gap between the haves and have-nots, confrontational politics and so on. Instead of giving emphasis on removing these factors, we are wrongly attempting to check crimes by inflicting exemplary punishment.

IN THE SECOND HALF OF LIFE

Sexual desire and pleasure is our birthright.  After all, we were created naked and with different genitals.  There must have been a plan in mind.  We are sexual beings from the day we’re born until the day we die.  Sex is fundamental to our lives and seems to be the area of life that most deeply touches our most personal issues.  Our sexuality is a core expression of who we are. We can hide with sex, we can hide from sex, but we cannot be fully ourselves sexually and hide.

Why have sex?  Well, it is well known that sex enhances our lives in multiple ways, both psychologically and physically.

Health benefits include lower blood pressure, overall stress reduction, higher levels of antibodies so fewer colds and flews, burns calories, good exercise, improves cardiovascular health, boosts self-esteem, releases endorphins which makes physical pain decline and helps lift depression; reduces risk of prostate cancer; promotes sleep.

Interpersonally, good sex may be only 20% of a good relationship (80% when it’s bad), but it’s a crucial 20%. Orgasm increases the level of oxytocin, a hormone that allows us to nurture and to bond. Hence, sex increases love and connection even on a purely biological basis.  Sex is an arena that is particular and special to a couple.  We let ourselves be known to our sexual partner in a way that we don’t share with anyone else.

A couple who has a satisfying sex life is more able to create and sustain a long-term loving relationship.  It is well known that people in stable relationships are thought to be more productive in their jobs, have better health and live longer.

The most rewarding sexual experiences are much more rich, diverse, and creative than the “get it up, get it in” approach.  And sexual responsiveness has absolutely nothing to do with being able to meet the culture’s prototype of sexual attractiveness.  Rather, it grows from connections of hearts, minds, and bodies.  Truly good sex begins with a willingness to be open and vulnerable and to give and receive pleasure and nurturing freely. The psychological ability to share intimacy, both physical and emotional, is essential for good sex, but being intimate (as we’ll discuss later) is an art that confuses and even terrifies many individuals.

Good sex, then, is a complex concoction of openness and secrecy, risk and control, personal satisfaction and mutual fulfillment.  Good sex requires an ability to be totally immersed in the moment (which is difficult for most people), ever-present to the sensuality of ourselves, our partner and our lives.

Sustaining a healthy, balanced sex life requires mindful attention to our senses, to the physical, emotional, intellectual and spiritual dimensions of ourselves, as well as our relationship with our partners.  We must KNOW OURSELVES (“KNOW THYSELF”) to know what we want and need sexually.  Then we need to have the courage and self-assurance to communicate these desires to our partner, even in the face of possible rejection.  Also, we need to have relinquished some of the layers of narcissistic self-consciousness that, when young, may have prevented us from being truly attuned to another person’s reality and needs.

What I’m saying is: good sex requires PSYCHOLOGICAL MATURITY (which we all have because we’ve lived for a while now and have learned some things along the way.)

Mature lovers are more likely to experience not just satisfying sex, but are more likely to experience sexual ecstasy.  Certain states may occur in sex where the boundaries of self are suspended in merger with the “other”.  This kind of, well, self-transcendence, can open the channels to experiencing a sense of a broader, more universal connection.

Let’s see what the dictionary says about “ecstasy”:  rapturous delight; intense joy; mental transport or rapture from the contemplation of divine things; displacement; trance; a shared sense of being taken or moved out of one’s self or one’s normal state, and entering a state of intensified feelings so powerful as to produce a trance-like dissociation from all but the single powerful emotion; this trance or rapture is associated with mystical exaltation.

Eastern societies routinely equate sexual ecstasy with spiritual enlightenment.  Only in Western civilizations is there a chasm between sex and God.

So, it’s all good, right?  Everything from lowering your blood pressure to experiencing mystical exaltation points to the fact that sex is a good thing.

But if it’s such a good thing, why are so many people not having sex?..or are subject to various sexual dysfunctions, compulsions or perversions?

The fact is that few of us will ever seize the opportunity to explore the full range of our sexual possibilities.  One writer I read referred to those who achieve the heights of sexual fulfillment as “the blessed few”.

Why so few?  According to a recent survey, one in five Americans is not interested in sex.  According to recent estimates, more than one-third of the women in the United States have problems with low sexual desire.  Even this statistic may be low, as people may be embarrassed to respond to the interviewer honestly. “Diminished sexual desire” in women, considered by some to be an epidemic, is the diagnosis “du jour” for many sex researchers and therapists.

The loss of sexual desire can undermine a person’s perception of herself, her relationship to her body and may cause an irreparable strain in her relationship.  Chances are if her excitement for sex is diminished, her excitement for life in general is somehow compromised.

So why are there only the “blessed few”?  One in five is “not interested”???? A third to a half of American women has no desire for sex????  What’s wrong with this picture?  Why are so few people actually interested in having sex, exploring it, heightening it?

There are many, many reasons that people eschew sexual pleasure.

First, there are societal/cultural/religious influences.  We live in a sex-negative culture.  For instance, most Western societies do not support sexual education and development.  Parents are still battling to eliminate whatever beleaguered sex education courses are offered in the schools (which, by the way, focus on procreation exclusively), stating that educating children about sex is the purview of the home.  Yet, in the homes, silence is the order of the day and kids are still left to figure it out for themselves.

When children are left to their own devices, they are subjected to misinformation from peers and their own fantasies about what sex is. If they become fixated at these levels, there’s more of a chance that they’ll grow up with certain sexual problems. (perversions, dysfunctions and compulsions)

Western culture has historically done much to harm sexuality.  Vestiges of the Victorian and Puritan eras, with their emphasis on exclusively procreative sex and discomfort with the idea of sexual pleasure, still resonate with many people, at least on an unconscious level.  Sex is evil; sex is sin and eternal damnation.

Today, we have the “free love” of the 70′s behind us, a growing understanding of sexuality in the mental health field, the significance of the women’s movement and the impact of the communications industry which have combined to break down some barriers to sexual understanding.  But we STILL live in a sex-negative culture.  The sexual terrain of our times, especially after AIDS,  is filled with fear, uncertainty and reactivity – for “normal” people, never mind  neurotics, homosexuals, alternative sexualities (BDSM), cross-dressers, people who embrace polyamory rather than monogamy,–  AND for the baby-boomers who are trying to forge a new paradigm for sexy aging.

We still get mixed messages from the culture about sex.   We’re  still confused.  “Sex is dirty, save it for someone you love.”  Does sex have to be illicit for it to be good?  Sex belongs as part of a committed relationship, which connotes high values but low passion.  Honor and virtue do not seem to combine well with hot, trembling, lusty sex.  Men in this culture still suffer from the “Madonna/Whore Complex”.  Some men choose both but will have to be dishonest about it, thus making a tear in the fabric of the integrity of their primary relationship.

Then there’s the societal influence of new technology.  The permeating influence of cybersex/pornography on men’s ability to attach and bond to a real, vital woman is a significant barrier to sexual intimacy.  Divorce attorneys from the American Bar Association report that a whopping 50% of all divorces are the result of the husband’s addiction to cybersex – that is — pornography, chat rooms, webcam sex, ads for prostitutes, dominatrixes, female bondage and humiliation, the fetish of your choice.

Women, for their part, are encouraged to adorn themselves to be sexually desirable, but not to be sexual.  In their historical roles as the guardians of morality, they fail as women if they “succumb” to their (base) sexual natures and allow for the experience of sexual pleasure.  Religious traditions have, in fact, been part of this split way of understanding sexuality.  The idea of sex as sin outside of marriage and sex as duty inside of marriage is still alive in the collective unconscious and has gone far to undermine the acceptance of sexual pleasure as normal and healthy.  These antiquated ideas that there is something morally perverse about a woman who enjoys sex are cultural imprints that unconsciously paralyze many women when they try to experience their sexual selves.

It seems to me that the media, as the messenger of cultural values, promotes the image of an anorexic teenager as representing the height of sexual desirability.  Can’t be too thin or too young (within legal limits) to have sex appeal.  People are then obsessed with living up to this unrealistic standard for physical beauty being piped through the media.  Women compare themselves to the unattainable, develop poor body images, and lose interest in sex.

(Ironically, physical beauty and sexual responsiveness are not interrelated.    The fact is that superficial variables such as weight, age, height, facial structure OR the size of a penis make very little difference when it comes to a person’s ability to be sexually responsive and experience sexual passion.)

Our society also buys into the notion that good sex always involves intercourse and orgasm by both partners, preferably at the same time.  This approach to sexuality is restrictive and unrealistic, especially as we get older.   As I’ve mentioned, sexuality is a much broader arena than getting it up, keeping it up and getting it in.  An emphasis on intercourse and orgasm strengthens the misconception men have that women need to be desirable and men need to perform. Performance anxiety and sexual dysfunction are the usual results of an exclusively intercourse/orgasm approach to sex.  Furthermore, the focus on genital sex exclusively limits the full range of sexual/sensual dimensions that can be experienced in addition to, or instead of, intercourse.

Some people have “intrapsychic” conflicts about sexuality from having grown up with dysfunctional family dynamics.  I don’t even want to think about the rampant sexual abuse of young females where the perpetrator is the father or other close family member.  It doesn’t get reported, the rest of the family denies it, and the girl suffers in agonizing isolation, thinking it was her fault, until adulthood when she may get some treatment.  Certain young boys are covertly incested by their mothers:  there may not have been actual sex, but the mother may have been needy, narcissistic, enmeshed, over-involved, controlling and unable to let her son “differentiate” to become the individual that he should become.  These boys may grow to be men with sexual problems.

However, the vast majority of sexual “shut-downs” comes from interpersonal conflicts between the partners.  Anger, resentment guilt, hurt feelings, being shut-down and non-communicative are not the stuff upon which sexual fulfillment is built.

I think relationships go bad (and sex shuts down) (cite divorce rates) because the vast majority of people have misconceptions about love and intimacy.  Yet, understanding intimacy is crucial to our understanding of hot and sweaty, yet warm and tender lovemaking.  Sex is, by definition, an intimate act that is enhanced by the lovers knowing themselves and the other.  If lovers are not able to know and disclose their deepest needs and wants to each other, sex becomes mechanical.  This kind of knowing and communicating about wants, needs and fantasies requires a foundation of trust and safety that can be found in a loving relationship.

(A caveat – I have no problem with casual sex, booty calls, friends with benefits, or even “kinky” sex that’s not part of a primary relationship.  This kind of sex can be fun and satisfying (depending on whether you respect each other), but it’s something altogether different than sex in a loving, monogamous relationship.)

Many people think of intimacy in terms of sentimentality or romanticism.  To do so is to falsify it.  “Being in love” is also a falsification of intimacy.

“Being in love” is a really a temporary state of insanity.  Each person projects his/her own personal relationship agenda (established in childhood) on the other without having any real, knowledge of the other.  Inevitably, the honeymoon is over, or people fall “out of love”, and disillusionment sets in.  We do not want to give up our fantasy and grow into the reality of actually loving the person “as is”.  At this point, either the relationship breaks off or the couple starts to work on building a relationship based in knowing the reality of each other.

People have all sorts of misconceptions about what “love” means. Love can mean sundry, ambiguous, neurotic and even evil things to some:  Caring for, rescuing, infatuation with, dependence on, feeling close to, sacrificing for, being a martyr to, being sexually excited by, having a “trophy partner”, having control over another, being controlled by another, marrying someone who’s somewhat like you’re abusive mother in order to finally get her to change, the need for validation and admiration from the other, or the vilely self-destructive idea that love means pain – either from physical or emotional abuse.

These kinds of ill-conceived notions about love create plastic, destructive relationships in which intimacy cannot exist.  These relationships can be used to manipulate others, to get our own narcissistic needs met at the expense of the other, and are in the service of other nefarious, unconscious, neurotic conflicts. Celebratory sex can’t exist in a plastic, alienated relationship because sex at it’s fullest requires us to authentic and connected with our lover.

So what is love?  “I love you” means something very concrete.  It means that I surround you with a feeling that allows you, even requires you, to be everything you really are as a human being at that moment.  When my love is full, you are your fullest self. I experience you not as what I expect, not what I want, not as a mannequin upon which I cloche my unconscious, infantile, needs to have a parent and remain a child.  You don’t need to reflect well on me.  You are not my status symbol.  You are, to me…your authentic self.

We love when we not only allow, but enable, enhance and enjoy the “otherness” of our partner.

Being loved, being moved by another’s acceptance into knowing ourselves as we really are may bring trouble, actually. The result of knowing what issues you have that impair productivity and intimacy may be painful, but it can be worked through.  We grow with it.  It is in human-to-human relationships that we learn, make mistakes and relearn.  And the primary intimate/sexual relationship is where we can relearn most profoundly.

Love shatters roles and facades and is illuminative.  The confirmation that you are loved lies in your increasing experience of being who you are.   Love is unilateral…self as the one who loves actively, not so much the self who is in need of love passively.  Real love requires no particular response from the other, so there is freedom of self expression without fear of disapproval or rejection.  It is the fear of being alone (or being abandoned) that makes us dependent on the response of others, keeping us from experiencing authentic, real loving.

Let’s look at the word “intimacy”.  Again, from the dictionary: the word is derived from the Latin intima, meaning “inner” or “inner-most.” Here again, it suggests that to be intimate, you need to know your real self. (KNOW THYSELF!!!) This ability to be in touch with our inner core is a requisite to being intimate.

Our intima holds the innermost part of ourselves, our most profound feelings, our enduring motivations, our values, our sense of right and wrong and our most embedded convictions about life.  Importantly, our intima also includes that which enables us to express these innermost aspects of our person to “the other”.

So, to be in relationship, and to know yourself/your partner sexually, you need to know and respect your intima.  The intima is also the way in which we value and esteem ourselves and determines how we are with being with others.  To put it simply, if don’t value yourself, you can’t value another.  If you’re not aware of needs and wants, or are shamed by them, then sex becomes no more than a f***.

I think every person I’ve ever seen in my consulting room for sexual compulsions suffers from estrangement from his intimus.  We can survive the disapproval of others. The feeling can be painful, but it’s nothing compared to the disapproval of ourselves.  Your personal well being and your ability to love another cannot survive your dislike or disrespect of yourself.  If you dislike yourself, you’ll never be comfortable with your sexuality.

It bears repeating… the outstanding quality of intimacy is the sense of being in touch with our real selves.  When “the other” also knows and is able to express his real self, intimacy happens.  Sexuality is both an expression of that intimacy and a bond that enhances intimacy.  With this kind of personal/sexual intimacy, our growth experience as humans is energized, enhanced, and fueled.  Intimacy is the most meaningful and courageous of human experiences.  It’s why people long for it so.

However, despite this universal longing, the fear and avoidance of intimacy is a reality for many people.  People fear and even dread that which they most long for.  No wonder there’s such a demand for psychotherapists!

So why would people fear, avoid or sabotage this wonderful thing called intimacy and, in the process, avoid sex.

Our capacity for intimacy is formed in the crucible of the first two years of life.  Mothers that are needy, narcissistic, depressed, enmeshed (over-involved), distant, too protective, controlling, chronically angry, addicted to substances, frustrated with their husbands and displace their needs onto their children… raise children who have the psychic imprint of closeness as being dangerous.  They also raise children who will carry self-hatred into their adult lives unless they get good treatment.

As children, they developed a rigid defense system (boundaries, walls, turning inward to not need others) in order to psychologically survive.  But what worked for them as children doesn’t work for them as adults.  For these people, the vulnerability of intimacy harkens back to a time when they were vulnerable as children and they fear re-traumatization in their current relationship.

When a person like this is loved – seen in an affirmative light and encouraged to grow and change – this rigid defensive structure is threatened, so their psychological equilibrium is disrupted.  Being loved is not congruent with the negative tapes they run about themselves.  They can’t allow the reality of being loved to affect their basic defensive structure.  Being vulnerable and open to change feels so threatening that they eschew close relationships and mature sexuality.

Entering into a relationship without having some resolution of childhood wounds results in various kinds of fear of intimacy: fear of being found inadequate, fear of engulfment, fear of the loss of control, fear of losing autonomy, fear of attack, fear of disappointment and betrayal, fear of guilt and fear of rejection and abandonment.

This panoply of fears and anxieties about being close and vulnerable definitely is not sexy.  We are most open and vulnerable when we express ourselves sexually and we need to have a secure base in ourselves and our relationship to expose ourselves in this way.

Alright.  Now let’s get to the nitty-gritty.  Sex and aging.

Some of those “not interested” in sex may very well be the middle-aged and the elderly.  They’ve bought into the myth that we’re supposed to stop being sexual after a certain age. The fact is, as we mature emotionally and psychologically throughout the lifespan, we mature sexually as well. We can look forward to the best years of our sexual lives because of that maturity.  People under the age of 35 may look hot, but they rarely have the psychological maturity to achieve the kind of self-knowledge, intimacy skills, communication skills and willingness to be vulnerability that underlies intense sexuality.

In order to achieve sexual fulfillment as we grow older, we have to nullify – negate – disown and disbelieve — the sex-negative cultural myths about sexuality and aging.  Let’s look at some of those myths now.

The quality of sex declines for both men and women as they age.
If a woman does not lubricate sufficiently or a man does not become erect immediately, it’s over for them.
Erection problems are inevitable and incurable without medical intervention
Female desire declines dramatically after menopause
Men peek in their teens…then it’s all downhill.
Women peak in their 30′s and lose interest in sex by 45-50.
Men and women with heart disease or other medical problems should avoid sexual activity
Sex has to end in orgasm
Intercourse is the only kind of sex that counts; everything else isn’t sex

Those are the myths.  But here’s what I think:  older loves are more sophisticated about their own/their partners needs, have an increased ability to communicate sexual and emotional needs; there is improved sexual responsiveness in women and a corresponding improved ability to control ejaculation in men; a greater willingness to experiment with sexual variations; far greater technical proficiency as lovers with fewer inhibitions and an increased ability to have fun during lovemaking.

Sex need never disappear and orgasm in both men and women has been observed in the 9th decade.

Sex is different as we age and those who are able to retain a sense of sexual vitality are those who are able to integrate their altered and somewhat diminished, but by no means vanished, sexuality comfortably into their lives.   Men, especially, tend to leave the sexual arena because these differences create frustration and anxiety.  They compare themselves to their adolescent selves and feel defeated.  The vast majority of sexual complaints of the elderly are a product of the person’s aversive psychological reaction to the normal age-related biological changes in sexual response.

Men change with age in that the frequency and intensity of orgasm diminishes.  It takes a much longer time to up for “round two”.  Older men no longer experience simultaneous erection, unlike much younger men who seem to be able to get it up just by…exposure to the air.  By contrast, the older man needs to receive effective stimulation by his partner and then is perfectly able to attain erections.

Women, after menopause, may be less able to lubricate as freely as they once did.  That doesn’t mean they’re no longer sexually responsive.  All that is required is a sexual lubricate (I recommend Astrogel), and they remain capable of multiple orgasmic response throughout life.

Here’s a list of Hot Sex Tips, according to Dorothy.

*        Don’t wait to be moved by desire or interest – allow yourself to be aroused and the desire will follow.

*        Do consider some systematic way to relax and calm yourself before a sexual encounter.  Anxiety is a killer of “in the moment” eroticism.

*        Speaking of “in the moment”, do consider taking up some form of meditation that trains the mind to be focused on the present moment.  The mind that is continually wandering to mundane life issues during sex will not be able to experience full sexual potential. (cite books)  Being fully in the moment also reduces “spectering”, which is watching and evaluating your performance, which reducing the intensity of sexual experience.

*        Do continue to cultivate your sexual skills and techniques. (Cite certain readings from the list).

*        People, as they age, do experience fewer sexual fantasies, thoughts and interest.  So it’s important to experiment with alternative (external) ways to become aroused.  Different postures, sexual techniques, erotic films and videos, the use of sex toys, all result in a more imaginative and creative sex life. .

*        Do eat nutritionally and exercise – feeling vigorous helps your sex life immeasurably.

*        Do not smoke or drink alcohol excessively.  A minimum amount of booze (no more than two drinks a day) can be an aphrodisiac: too much makes you loose (or placid and soft) and can ruin your erectile functioning.  Smoking also effects erectile functioning in later years.

In conclusion, I invite you to meet the challenge of mature sexual intimacy, and to be and remain…the erotic, celebratory, courageous and connected person that you’re meant to be.

SUGGESTED READING

DorothyC.Hayden, LCSW

dhayden@nyc.cc.com

The New Male Sexuality

Bernie Zilbergeld, Ph.D.

For Each Other…Sharing Sexual Intimacy

Lonnie Barbach, Ph.D.

For Ourselves

Lonnie Barbach, Ph.D.

How to Solve Your Sex Problems Using Self-Hypnosis

Frank S. Caprio

The Relaxation Response

Herbert Benson, M.D.

Receiving Love

Harville Hendrix, Ph.D

Keeping the Love You Find (for singles)

Harville Hendrix, Ph.D.

And…the classics!!

The Sensuous Woman

“J”

The Happy Hooker

Xaviera Hollander

The Joy of Sex

Alex Comfort

More Joy of Sex

Alex Comfort

For Women Only: A Revolutionary Guide to Reclaiming Your Sex Life

Jennifer Berman, M.D., et al.

The Manual of Sex Therapy

Helen Singer Kaplan, M.D., Ph.D.

Sex After 50

Joel D. Block, P.H.D

Passionate Marriage

David Schnarch, Ph.D.

Becoming Orgasmic: A Sexual Growth Program for Women

Julia Heiman et.al.

The Lover Within: Opening to Energy in Sexual Practice

Julie Henderson

The Art of Intimacy

Thomas Patrick Malone, M.D.

The Art of Loving

Eric Fromm

Mindfulness in Plain English

BauteGunaratana

Insight Meditation Kit: A Step-by-Step Course on How to Meditate

Sharon Salzburg and Joseph Goldstein

By ForestWander Nature Photography

McColloster (1996) suggests that these correlations reveal that science and religion can co-exist and help to build upon one another when one considers the context of facts and information (McColloster, 1996). Multiple discovered natural aspects are referenced throughout this paper from concrete sources which enhance the credibility of this research. Research sources include documentation from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) which provides a solid reference for a popular theory that, although not yet proven to be a law, certainly raises eyebrows when considering scriptures that have been read for hundreds or even thousands of years. This intriguing comparison is noted throughout this paper in both the Old and New Testament books of the Bible.

Science and religion are often areas of intense debate because of dogmatic unwavering views from either side of intellectual discussions. Although there is often disagreement between scholars and well educated theologians regarding the validity of scriptures and why humans exist, this research exposes the possibility that both the knowledge of science and the understanding of scripture can reason together. This paper will not explore such controversial areas of faith and belief, but rather provides a fact based comparative view of scientific research and Biblical writings.

Scientists and Religionists Can Agree

Many respected writers and well-read publications have made a comparison between science and scripture. In an article written for USA Today titled “Creation ‘Science’ vs. Religious Attitudes” McCollister writes (1996), “most scientists would agree with pro-evolution religionists that, when properly understood, religion and science enhance and complement each other, but only if the means, aims, methods, and ground rules of each are clearly understood.” (McColloster, 1996). Ms. McColloster is a freelance journalist and editor of Voices for Evolution, her articles have been published by notable publishers such as the National Center for Science Education in addition to USA today. McColloster’s peer reviewed articles and view points are recognized as an authoritative unbiased source dedicated to education and science.

When two areas of study provide information about similar subjects, it is logical to consider the material from both sources in a methodical comparison. Although science provides information as to how nature exists and functions, and the religious point of view is a theological answer as to why creation exists, valid scientific support can be recognized when the context of each source is considered. Ernest Lucas (2005) wrote in the journal of science and Christian belief that “there is no incompatibility between the biblically-based classical Christian doctrine of creation and modern science, provided one understands the different levels at which science and theology work and the limitations this puts on each of them.” (Lucas, 2005, p. 140). In consideration of the credibility of Dr. Lucas’ publications, The Faraday Institute (2009) wrote that “Ernest Lucas has a MA in Chemistry from Oxford University and a PhD in Chemistry from Kent.” He then studied theology at Oxford and was ordained a Baptist, later obtaining a PhD in Oriental studies from Liverpool. “Lucas was Associate Director of the Institute for Contemporary Christianity in London before moving to Bristol Baptist College, where he is Vice-Principal and Tutor in Biblical Studies.” (The Faraday Institute for Science and Religion, 2009). Ernest’s diverse background in science and religion provides an expert reference from both an educated scientific and religious point of view.

The levels of information and the methods by which scientific and Biblical knowledge is presented may often seem difficult to comprehend. In order to understand the rationalization for science and scripture coinciding together, it is necessary to begin with some questions.

1. Are there documented scientific facts of nature that support scriptural references to “The Beginning” in the Bible?

2. Is there specific scientific knowledge of natural characteristics that are evident in the Bible regarding the areas of matter, time, the weather, the Earth’s geology and human biology?

Science is a very diverse and in depth area of study and it would be seemingly impossible to cover every branch of research. As well, classic Biblical scriptures, some written hundreds of years ago, and others written thousands of years ago, all in different languages, make the Bible alone a vast area of study. In order to address this subject in a time efficient manner this research documents four basic areas of study. Research has revealed that scientific evidence supports Biblical accounts of the natural characteristics relative to the composition of the universe, the nature of time, the Earth, and human biology.

The Beginning: The Big Bang Theory Supports
the Beginning as Written in the Bible

The first area of research to address will appropriately be “the beginning” of the universe and time itself. As each day passes the progression of time is evident all around, and the questions of when everything began, or has everything simply existed, has been a puzzle that scientists have researched for hundreds of years. Until recently there was only speculation and belief about a beginning of the universe.

In 2003 NASA revealed an amazing discovery about the beginning of the universe. Dan Vergano (2003) wrote in an article for USA Today titled “NASA peers back to the beginning of the universe”. In this article NASA is noted for strengthening the Big Bang theory with a one hundred fifty million dollar project and Charles Bennett of NASA’sGoddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. is quoted stating “Astrophysicists will no longer have the freedom to invent whatever theory they want about the universe,” Bennett says, “We’ve ruled out a lot of the easy explanations.” (Vergano, 2003, para. 17). NASA is one of the world’s most recognized authorities on scientific exploration into the unknown. When comparing the science of a beginning to the Biblical account of a beginning, as written in Genesis “In the beginning” (Genesis 1:1 KJV), it is easy to understand that there is a complementary correlation between the two areas of study. Scientific theory clearly supports the fact that there was a beginning of time and matter.

When considering the theory of the Big Bang it is logical that in the progression of time and natural order that the Earth itself would begin to form. (The theory about how fast the formation of the Earth took place is not addressed in this research, as this would incorporate areas of faith and belief. The focus for this research is directly related to facts and science.)

Once the Earth was formed it is safe to consider that an atmosphere and water developed and that certain areas of the Earth were covered in water and other areas were exposed as dry land. The scientific theory for a mass continent called Pangaea supports the distinct likelihood that a super continent existed. This one mass of land is theorized to have drifted apart according to the pre-existing theory of Continental Drift. However, in the past 30 years continental drift has been explained through the forces of plate tectonics which explain how the plates of the Earth’s surface move (Kious, Tilling, 1996).

The Beginning: The Theory of Pangea Supports the
Formation of Land on the Earth in the Bible

A very interesting correlation is able to be seen between the Biblical reference of the formation of a super continent and the supporting scientific evidence. As the scripture states in the book of Genesis “Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters” (Genesis 1:6). In addition to this scripture we see also another scripture written which states “Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together unto one place, and let the dry land appear” (Genesis 1:9). In these scriptures we see a reference to a firmament and that the waters are gathered together into one place. This scriptural reference clearly is supported by the scientific theory of a single land mass and a single body of water.

The Beginning: Science States the Earth is Suspended
by Gravity as Written in the Bible

The forces of nature which formed the Earth are not only at work on the surface of the Earth, but the very planet itself is suspended by gravity, floating in the midst of space held by natural forces which are yet to be completely understood. According to the U.S. Department of State’s Bureau of International Information Programs or IIP (2008) “in 1972, astronauts on board Apollo 17 captured the first full view of Earth suspended in space, exposed in full sunlight” (U.S. Department of State’s Bureau of International Information Programs, 2008). This wonderful picture clearly shows the Earth suspended in space as has been known and recognized for hundreds of years. This scientific evidence supports the Biblical reference to the gravitational forces of “nothing” suspending the Earth in the book of Job (Job 26:7). It is quite interesting that this scientific evidence supports scriptures which clearly indicate that the Earth is suspended by forces which are not seen even with today’s modern advances in technology.

The Beginning: Gravitational Forces Affect
Celestial Objects in the Bible

The gravitational forces suspending the earth in the picture taken by the Apollo 17 astronauts affect all celestial bodies throughout the universe. The scientific documentation of planetary gravitational forces is noted in the writings of astrophysicists. In a book titled “A Year in the Life of the Universe: A Seasonal Guide to Viewing the Cosmos”, the authors write about the gravitationally bound Pleiades star cluster. Gendler & Ferris (2006) state that “the Pleiades will probably travel through space as a bound cluster for another 250 million years” (Gendler, Ferris, 2006). These stars are able to be seen by the unaided eye. In the ancient Biblical time of Job the forces of gravity of the star constellation was used in a rhetorical question. The Bible states that God asks Job, “Canst thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades, or loose the bands of Orion?” (Job 38:31). It is obvious that binding the influences is referring to the gravitational forces which hold the stars together. The fact that the stars are bound together by gravity is a documented scientific fact which supports the natural occurrence of gravity documented in the Bible.

Relevant scientific research supports the facts which have been mentioned so far, and this documented research is shown to compliment and correlate with scripture which address very similar areas of science and knowledge. Scientific support for the beginning of time and matter are not the only occurrences which have been noted in research. Specific examples of natural facts in the areas regarding the end of matter, time zones, weather, and geology are also noted and provide further affirmation which anchors the fact that science and scripture can and do complement each other in many relevant fields of study.

The Nature of Matter: The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Supports the Destiny of the Universe in the Bible

Mankind has theorized and speculated about the end of the world and the universe as long as documented history can record. This question has fascinated everyone from common men and women to distinguished scholars. As science has progressed, the understanding of matter and the makeup of matter has advanced as well. When a scientific theory is tested over and over again, it is proven to be law; a scientific law typically does not change. The Second Law of Thermodynamics is a law which addresses the statistics of the order of molecules which make up matter. In his paper titled “Things Fall Apart: An Introduction to Entropy”, Gary Felder (2001) uses the example of a dandelion and spores. The statistical probability of dandelion spores being blown from the stem is much more likely than the dandelion spores re-attaching themselves to the stem from which they grew (Felder, 2001). This is an example of the statistical law of entropy and the second law of thermodynamics. Research and statistics show that in every area of matter which includes everything on the Earth, the Earth itself and the entire universe is gradually falling apart through the progression of time. Although you cannot see the hands on a clock move they are still moving and this is simply how the Earth is breaking down as time progresses.

The second law of thermodynamics supports scriptures that were written in the Bible concerning the end of all creation. In the book of Psalms the scripture states “Of old hast thou laid the foundation of the earth: and the heavens are the work of thy hands. They shall perish, but thou shalt endure: yea, all of them shall wax old like a garment;” (Psalm 102:25, 26). In this scripture we see the words “perish” and “wax old” used describing the Earth itself and the heavens describing the universe and stars. Dr. Felder (2001) describes the end of all matter in the following statements “So far as we know entropy will continue increasing until someday the universe is filled with nothing but weak, uniform radiation.” He also states that “this scenario, known as “the heat death of the universe,” referencing that there will be a period when all matter experiences this ultimate progression of scientific law (Felder, 2001). Again this research supports additional scriptures one of which reads “the elements shall melt with fervent heat, the earth also and the works that are therein shall be burned up.” (2 Peter 3:10).

The Nature of Time: The Science of Day and Night
During one Time Period Supports Scripture

Although the progression of entropy may be very slow in the short life spans that humans live, the twenty four hour cycle of night and day is evident. Modern science and the ability to travel great distances has allowed people to go from time zone to time zone in a matter of hours. The Lunar and Planetary Institute (2004) explains how the Earth experiences this cycle because of the rotation of the Earth on its axis. It is interesting to note that New Testament scripture is supported by this ever occurring fact of science. In the book of Saint Luke, Jesus makes a statement about people sleeping in a bed and others working in a field; inferring that it will be night one place and day in another when He returns (Luke 17:34-36). This inference makes an interesting correlation between the science of time zones and scripture.

The Nature Weather: The Science of Jet Streams
Supports Biblical Scripture

In 1920 a discovery was made which drastically affected the study of weather patterns and air travel in modern avionics. This discovery is thought to have been made by meteorologist named Wasaburo Ooishi. His discovery was made possible by the use of a weather balloon which revealed the pattern of wind known today as jet streams (Sapojnikova, 2010), The air currents which travel at very high altitudes (some as high as 52,000 feet) help to increase the ground speed of jet airliners thus saving fuel and time. The jet streams are today well known facts of science that determine many factors of the Earths changing weather. Amazingly the circuits of the wind are noted in scripture which was written by the very wise King Solomon. In the book of Ecclesiastes it is written that “The wind goeth toward the south, and turneth about unto the north; it whirleth about continually, and the wind returneth again according to his circuits.” (Ecclesiastes 1:6). It is well known science that supports the fact that wind currents move toward different southern, northern and other points on the map, it is also known that these powerful wind currents whirl about and around the Earth returning to the same place as they circle the planet.

The Earth’s Geology: Oceanic Geological Science
Supports Biblical References

From the heights of the clouds to the very depths of the sea, sciences supporting biblical scriptures are recognized in nearly every area of study. A question was posed to Job by God saying “Hast thou entered into the springs of the sea? or hast thou walked in the search of the depth?” (Job 38:16). From a theological perspective this was asked of Job in order for Job to realize his limited ability, to know or be able to do as much as God, even though Job was a good man. But from a scientific perspective research has shown that scientific discoveries were made in 1977 that support the science of this scripture. Watson (1999) from the U.S. Geological Survey writes that in 1977 “scientists discovered hot springs at a depth of 2.5 km, on the Galapagos Rift” (Watson, 1999). Although there had been pre-existing theories about these springs since the 1970′s they had not been captured by a camera.

So far scientific research has supported the creation of time and the universe; as well as theories, facts and laws that have correlated with the principles of gravity affecting the Earth itself and stars. In addition research has shown specific examples of the destiny of useful matter, the affirmation of time zones, jet streams and oceanic springs. All of these areas of science specifically focus on the Earth and other natural surroundings. It is therefore necessary to explore the biological science and the interrelation of biblical scripture regarding the human body itself.

Human Biology: Recent Scientific Theories Support
the Account of a Type of Adam in the Bible

Recently DNA research has revealed an interesting theory regarding the early origins of mankind. This DNA research has led to the close consideration that early mankind developed from one man or one small group of people. In a National Geographic article Hillary Mayell (2003) writes “geneticist Spencer Wells has concluded that all humans alive today are descended from a single man who lived in Africa around 60,000 years ago.” (Hillary, 2003). Albeit Dr. Wells theory is still a theory which requires much more additional research in order to become fact, this modern discovery reveals an amazing basic support for the oldest Biblical accounts for mankind’s origin. As stated in the beginning of the book of Genesis, God created Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden and then in the New Testament a scripture describes “The first man Adam was made a living soul” (1 Corinthians 15:45). Still research continues to reveal if not only an inference, a direct resemblance to this carefully studied theory of the origin of mankind.

Human Biology: Science Supports an Admonishment
to Immoral Sexual Behavior in the Bible

The creation and growth of man will likely always be a subject of intense study that may never be completely understood. However, one area of research that has grown to epidemic proportions in modern science and medical study is the analysis of sexually transmitted diseases. In the British Medical Journal an article written by Ebrahim, McKenna & Marks (2005) provides statistics which expose that in 1990 thirty thousand deaths were attributed to sexual behavior. Sexual behavior is not only attributed to death but to other detrimental consequences as stated in the article “Sexual behaviour leads to a variety of harmful consequences, such as unintended pregnancy, social stigma, infections, and chronic psychological or pathological sequelae.” (Ebrahim, McKenna & Marks, 2005). Clearly the medical evidence shown throughout modern history underscores the fact that immoral or unrestrained sexual behavior is detrimental to the human body. Biblical scriptures are clearly supported by this fact which is identified by the Apostle Paul as he admonishes the church of Corinth. The New Testament scripture declares “he that commiteth fornication sinneth against his own body.” (1 Corinthians 6:18). Fornication is the practice of immoral sexual activity outside of wedlock. It is well known and documented that sexual promiscuity leads to many of the diseases that modern day society faces in monumental proportions.

Conclusion

In light of the research presented in this paper it is evident that science supports Biblical scriptures and in return that Biblical scriptures reference documented scientific facts of nature. These written references affirm the many areas of study in which science references subjects that have been written and discussed in scriptures for hundreds of years. The scientific facts have been presented in these various areas, subsequent scriptures are then documented which are obviously supported by modern evidence.

Although much discussion and many debates have taken place about the validity of scripture in the context of known scientific facts, many respected scholars such as those from the Institute for Creation Research (2010) agree that there are valid and considerable comparisons in the studies of both. When the application of science and scripture are properly addressed accounting for the time period in which they were documented, the authors of the content, and the method in how they both are compared, it becomes apparent how these areas of study compliment one another.

The focus and research of this paper is to establish the fact that modern science supports many Biblical scriptures. One must realize the limitations of the compatibility of science and scripture, yet at the same time research clearly presents facts. In this research science supports a theory of a beginning in time and space, and then the scripture is presented which represents the beginning of time and space. The scientific evidence for the forces and laws of gravity are presented, subsequently the scriptural references are recorded which reference these areas. Research presents the second law of thermodynamics and then similar accounts of the Biblical record for the end of all matter are exhibited. Not only is scientific evidence presented which clarifies support for the Earth, space and time but research also supports the biology of the human body itself.

Many references throughout the various fields of science are written about in the Biblical scriptures, several of which are not mentioned in this document. In the clear viewpoint of this research it is logical to ascertain that modern scientific studies document references of the natural characteristics written in the Bible regarding the composition of the universe, the nature of time, the Earth, and human biology.